Play 10, Abraham and Isaac

The Parchemyners and Bokebynders
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 275 280 285 290 295 300 305 310 315 320 325 330 335 340 345 350 355 360 365 370 375 380	ABRAHAM Grett God, that alle this world has wrought And wisely wote both gud and ille, I thanke hym thraly in my thoght Of alle his lave he lens me tille. That thus fro barenhede has me broghte, A hundereth wynter to fulfille, Thou graunte me myght so that I mowght Ordan my werkis aftir thi wille, For in this erthely lyffe Ar non to God more boune Then is I and my wyffe, For frenshippe we have foune. Unto me tolde God on a tyde Wher I was telde under a tree, He saide my seede shulde be multyplyed Lyke to the gravell of the see, And als the sternes wer strewed wyde, So saide he that my seede schuld be; And bad I shulde be circumcicyd To fulfille the lawe: thus lernynde he me. In worlde wherso we wonne He sendes us richeys ryve. Als ferre as schynes the sonne, He is stynter of stryve. Abram first named was I, And sythen he sette a sylypp ma, And my wiffe hyght Sarae And sythen was scho named Sara. But Sara was uncertan thanne That evere oure seede shulde sagates yelde Because hirselfe sho was barrane, And we wer bothe gone in grete eelde. But scho wroght as a wyse woman. To have a barne us for to beelde, Hir servand prevely sho wan Unto my bede my wille to welde. Sone aftir than befelle When God oure dede wolde dight, Sho broght forthe Esmaell, A sone semely to sight. Than aftirward when we waxed alde, My wyffe scho felle in feere for same, Oure God nedes tythynges tyll us talde Wher we wer in oure house at hame, Tille have a sone we shulde be balde, And Isaak shulde be his name, And his seede shulde springe manyfalde. Gyff I were blythe, who wolde me blame, And for I trowed this tythynge That God talde to me thanne, The grounde and the begynnyng Of trowthe that tyme beganne. Nowe awe I gretely God to yeelde That so walde telle me his entente, And noght gaynestandyng oure grete eelde, A semely sone he has us sente. Now is he wight hymselfe to welde And fra me is all wightnes wente; Therfore sall he be my beelde. I lowe hym that this lane has lente, For he may stynte oure stryve And fende us fro alle ill. I love hym as my liff With all myn herte and will. ANGELUS Abraham, Abraham! ABRAHAM Loo, I am here. ANGELUS Nowe bodeword unto thee I brynge: God wille assaye thi wille and cheere, Giffe thou wille bowe tylle his byddyng. Isaak, thi sone, that is thee dere, Whom thou loves over alle thyng, To the lande of Vyssyon wende in feere, And there of hym thou make offering. I sall thee shewe fulle sone The stede of sacrifice. God wille this dede be done, And therfore thee avise. ABRAHAM Lord God, that lens aylastand light, This is a ferly fare to feele; Tille have a sone semely to sight, Isaak, that I love full wele. He is of eelde, to reken right, Thyrty yere and more sumdele, And unto dede hym buse be dight: God has saide me so for my seele, And biddis me wende on all wise To the lande of Vysioune Ther to make sacryfice Of Isaak that is my sone. And that is hythyn thre daies jornay, The ganeste gate that I gane goo, And sertis, I sall noght say hym nay If God commaunde myself to sloo. Bot to my sone I will noght saye Bot take hym and my servantis twoo, And with our asse wende forthe our waye. As God has said, it sall be soo. Isaak, sone, I undirstande To wildirnesse now wende will we Tharefore to make oure offerand, For so has God comaunded me. ISAAC Fadir, I am evere at youre wille, As worthy is withowten trayne, Goddis comaundement to fulfille Awe all folke forto be fayne. ABRAHAM Sone, thou sais me full gode skille, Bott alle the soth is noght to sayne. Go we sen we sall thertille, I praye God send us wele agayne. ISAAC Childir, lede forthe oure asse With wode that we sall bryne; Even as God ordand has To wyrke we will begynne. I FAMULUS Att youre biddyng we wille be bowne What way in worlde that ye wille wende. II FAMULUS Why, sall we trusse ought forthe a towne In any uncouthe lande to lende? I FAMULUS I hope tha have in this sessoune Fro God of hevyn sum solayce sende. II FAMULUS To fulfille yt is goode reasoune, And kyndely kepe that he has kende. I FAMULUS Bott what thei mene certayne Have I na knowlage clere. II FAMULUS It may noght gretely gayne To move of swilke matere. ABRAHAM No, noye you noght in no degré So for to deme here of oure dede, For als God comaunded so wirke wille we Untill his tales us bus take hede. I FAMILIUS All thos that wille his servandis be, Ful specially he wille thaym spede. ISAAC Childir, with all the myght in me I lowe that Lorde of ilke a lede And wirshippe hym certayne; My will is evere unto. II FAMILIUS God giffe you myght and mayne Right here so for to doo. ABRAHAM Sone, yf oure Lord God Almyghty Of myselfe walde have his offerande, I wolde be glade for hym to dye, For all oure heele hyngis in his hande. ISAAC Fadir, forsuth, ryght so walde I, Lever than lange to leve in lande. ABRAHAM A, sone, thu sais full wele, forthy God geve thee grace gratthely to stande. Childir, bide ye here still. No ferther sall ye goo, For yondir I se the hill That we sall wende untoo. ISAAC Kepe wele oure asse and all oure gere To tyme we come agayne you till. ABRAHAM My sone, this wode behoves thee bere Till thou come high uppon yone hill. ISAAC Fadir, that may do no dere Goddis comaundement to fullfyll, For fra all wathes he will us were Wharso we wende to wirke his wille. ABRAHAM A, sone, that was wele saide. Lay doune that woode even here Tille oure auter be grathide. And, my sone, make goode cheere. ISAAC Fadir, I see here woode and fyre, Bot wherof sall oure offerand be? ABRAHAM Sertis, son, gude God oure suffraynd syre Sall ordayne it in goode degré, For sone, and we do his dessyre, Full gud rewarde tharfore gette wee. In hevyn ther mon we have oure hyre, For unto us so hight has hee. Therfore, sone, lete us praye To God, bothe thou and I, That we may make this daye Oure offerand here dewly. Grete God that all this worlde has wrought And grathely governes goode and ill, Thu graunte me myght so that I mowght Thy comaundementis to fullfill. And gyffe my flessche groche or greve oght Or sertis my saule assentte thertill, To byrne all that I hydir broght I sall noght spare yf I shulde spille. ISAAC Lorde God, of grete pousté, To wham all pepull prayes, Graunte bothe my fadir and me To wirke thi wille allweyes. But, fadir, nowe wolde I frayne full fayne Wharof oure offerand shulde be grathid? ABRAHAM Sertis, sone, I may no lengar layne, Thyselfe shulde bide that bittir brayde. ISAAC Why, fadir, will God that I be slayne? ABRAHAM Ya suthly, sone, so has he saide. ISAAC And I sall noght grouche ther agayne; To wirke his wille I am wele payed. Sen it is his desire I sall be bayne to be Brittynd and brent in fyre, And therfore morne noght for me. ABRAHAM Nay, sone, this gatis most nedis be gone, My Lord God will I noght gaynesaye, Nor never make mornys nor mone To make offerand of thee this day. ISAAC Fadir, sen God oure Lorde allane Vowchesaffe to sende when ye gon praye A sone to you whan ye had nane, And nowe will that he wende his waye, Therfore faynde me to fell Tille offerand in this place, But firste I sall you telle My counsaille in this case. I knaw myselfe be cours of kynde, My flessche for dede will be dredande; I am ferde that ye sall fynde My force youre forward to withstande. Therfore is beste that ye me bynde In bandis faste, boothe fute and hande. Nowe whillis I am in myght and mynde, So sall ye saffely make offerrande, For fadir, when I am boune My myght may noght avayle. Here sall no fawte be foune To make youre forward faylle. For ye ar alde and alle unwelde, And I am wighte and wilde of thoght. ABRAHAM To bynde hym that shuld be my beelde, Outtane Goddis will, that wolde I noght. But loo, her sall no force be felde, So sall God have that he has soght. Farewele, my sone, I sall thee yelde Tylle hym that all this world has wroght. Nowe kysse me hartely, I thee pray, Isaak, I take my leve for ay, Me bus thee mys. My blissyng have thou enterly, And I beseke God Allmyghty He giffe thee his. Thus aren we samyn assent Eftir thy wordis wise. Lorde God, to this take tente: Ressayve thy sacrifice. This is to me a perles pyne To se myn nawe dere childe thus boune. Me had wele lever my lyf to tyne Than see this sight, thus of my sone. It is Goddis will, it sall be myne, Agaynste his saande sall I never schone; To Goddis cummaundement I sall enclyne That in me fawte non be foune. Therfore my sone so dere, If thou will anythyng saye, Thy dede it drawes nere. Farewele, for anes and ay. ISAAC Now, my dere fadir, I wolde you praye, Here me thre wordes, graunte me my bone Sen I fro this sall passe for ay. I see myn houre is comen full sone. In worde, in werke, or any waye That I have trespassed or oght mysdone, Forgiffe me, fadir, or I dye this daye, For his luffe that made bothe sonne and mone. Here sen we two sall twynne, Firste God I aske mercy And you in more and myne This day or evere I dy. ABRAHAM Now my grete God Adonay, That all this worlde has worthely wroght, Forgyffe the sone, for his mercye, In worde, in worke, in dede, and thoght. Nowe, sone, as we ar leryd Our tyme may noght myscarie. ISAAC Nowe farewele, all medilerth, My flesshe waxis faynte for ferde. Nowe, fadir, take youre swerde, Methynke full lange ye tarie. ABRAHAM Nay, nay, sone, nay, I thee behete That do I noght, withouten were. Thy wordis makis me my wangges to wete And chaunges, childe, ful often my cheere. Therfore lye downe, hande and feete; Nowe may thou witte thyn oure is nere. ISAAC A, dere fadir, lyff is full swete, The drede of dede dose all my dere. As I am here youre sone, To God I take me till. Nowe am I laide here bone, Do with me what ye will. For fadir, I aske no more respete Bot here a worde what I wolde mene: I beseke you or that ye smyte Lay doune this kyrcheffe on myn eghne. Than may youre offerand be parfite If ye wille wirke thus as I wene. And here to God my saule I wite, And all my body to brenne bydene. Now, fadir, be noght myssyng But smyte fast as ye may. ABRAHAM Farewele, in Goddis dere blissyng And myn for ever and ay. That pereles prince I praye Myn offerand heretill have it, My sacryfice this day: I praye the Lorde ressayve it. ANGELUS Abraham, Abraham! ABRAHAM Loo, here iwys. ANGELUS Abraham, abide, and halde thee stille. Sla noght thy sone, do hym no mysse. Take here a schepe thy offerand tyll, Is sente thee fro the kyng of blisse That faythfull ay to thee is fone. He biddis thee make offerrand of this Here at this tyme, and saffe thy sone. ABRAHAM I lowe that Lord with herte entier That of his luffe this lane me lente, To saffe my sone, my darlyng dere, And sente this schepe to this entente That we sall offir it to thee here; So sall it be as thou has mente. My sone, be gladde and make goode cheere, God has till us goode comforte sente. He will noght thou be dede, But tille his lawes take kepe. And se, son, in thy stede God has sente us a schepe. ISAAC To make oure offerand at his wille All for oure sake he has it sente. To lowe that Lorde I halde grete skyll That tylle his menye thus has mente. This dede I wolde have tane me till Full gladly, Lorde, to thyn entent. ABRAHAM A, sone, thy bloode wolde he noght spill, Forthy this shepe thus has he sente, And, sone, I am full fayne Of our spede in this place, Bot go we home agayne And lowe God of his grace. ANGELUS Abraham, Abraham! ABRAHAM Loo, here indede. Harke, sone, sum salvyng of our sare. ANGELUS God sais thou sall have mekill mede For thys goode will that thou in ware; Sen thou for hym wolde do this dede To spille thy sone and noght to spare He menes to multiplie youre seede On sides seere, as he saide are. And yit he hight you this That of youre seede sall ryse Thurgh helpe of hym and his Overehand of all enmys. Luk ye hym love, this is his liste, And lelly lyff eftir his laye, For in youre seede all mon be bliste That ther bese borne be nyght or day. If ye will in hym trowe or triste, He will be with you evere and aye. ABRAHAM Full wele wer us and we it wiste Howe we shulde wirke his will alwaye. ISAAC Fadir, that sall we frayne At wyser men than wee, And fulfille it ful fayne Indede eftir oure degree. ABRAHAM Nowe, sone, sen we thus wele hase spede, That God has graunted me thy liffe, It is my wille that thou be wedde And welde a woman to thy wyffe; So sall thy sede springe and be spredde In the lawez of God be reasoune ryffe. I wate in what steede sho is stede That thou sall wedde, withowten stryffe. Rabek, that damysell, Hir fayrer is none fone, The doughter of Batwell That was my brothir sone. ISAAC Fadir, as thou likes my lyffe to spende, I sall assente unto the same. ABRAHAM One of my servandis sone sall I sende Unto that birde to brynge hir hame. The gaynest gates now will we wende. My barnes, yee ar noght to blame Yeff ye thynke lang that we her lende. Gadir same oure gere, in Goddis name, And go we hame agayne Evyn unto Barsabé. God that is most of mayne Us wisse and with you be.	distinguishes fully (without reservation) love; bestows on me barrenness strength Order committed found God told me once; (see note) lodged [in my tent]; (see note) (see note); (t-note) sands stars ordered taught live abundant As far as shines healer; troubles (t-note) Then; a syllable more was named Sarai thereafter (see note) in this manner age protect (raise) secretly she won bed determine Ishmael handsome necessarily; tidings; told home To; bold manyfold If; happy trusted told truth at that time ought; yield up (sacrifice) would strong (man) strength support love; gift end our trouble defend life (see note) message test If dear (t-note) together; (see note) place wills that directs you bestows everlasting wondrous matter to discover To somewhat death he must be put well-being go hither fastest way; may go; (t-note) slay [him] say [anything] (t-note) deception Ought; glad good reason [home] well again; (t-note) wood; burn ordained bound (compelled) go out of strange; remain they; season From; some naturally; revealed mean (i.e., don’t fuss about this) judge as God commands so we will do words we must take heed them prosper praise; every man thereto strength would; offering glad in his place well-being hangs would Rather; long plainly remain; (t-note) Until; to you wood; carry; (see note) harm dangers; defend work altar; set up (see note) good; sovereign (i.e., in good time) (t-note) may; reward promised as is due surely strength; might if; rebel or grieve Even though my soul burn; hither refrain; come to grief power ask; eagerly made longer conceal endure; affliction complain pleased willing; (see note) Dismembered; burned mourn way must be taken mourning (weeping); moan alone none go [on] endeavor; kill For an offering by course of nature death; dreading afraid strength your promise; (see note) (see note) bound fault be found covenant strong (manly); impetuous defense Except for coercion; felt (see note) must; miss give together in agreement; (t-note) pay attention unequaled pain own; bound rather; lose message (command); hesitate fault; found death once Hear; request before I die love separate less ere Adonai (Jewish name for God) told (t-note) fear (see note); (t-note) (t-note) promise perplexity cheeks [become] wet know; hour is near (i.e., frightens me) (t-note) (i.e., entrust myself) bound delay hear; advise before eyes perfect advise my soul I commend burn now don’t fail (i.e., God); (t-note) hold harm sheep for your offering; (see note) found save praise; full heart love; gift intent to care place praise company [of heaven]; intended taken (t-note) benefit praise some remedy for; sore reward many; before promises Above desire loyally live; law may be blessed believe; trust if we it learn ask wield (have) abundantly; (t-note) know in what place she lives Rebecca; (see note) found Bethuel (t-note) lady; home quickest ways children (young men) linger Gather together Beer-sheba direct

Play 10, ABRAHAM AND ISAAC: EXPLANATORY NOTES

ABBREVIATIONS: AV: Authorized (“King James”) Version; Meditations: Meditations on the Life of Christ, trans. Ragusa and Green; MED: Middle English Dictionary; OED: Oxford English Dictionary; RB: Richard Beadle, ed., York Plays; REED: Records of Early English Drama; YA: Davidson and O’Connor, York Art; York Breviary: Breviarium ad usum insignis ecclesie Eboracensis; York Missal: Missale ad usum insignis ecclesiae Eboracensis.

References to the Ordo paginarum are to REED: York, 1:16–27.

The Parchment Makers were a specialized leather craft whose members appear in the list of freemen of the city after 1350, while the Bookbinders, who probably lived in the liberties controlled by the Minster rather than the city, seem never to have sought the freedom of the city. Their play, written in twelve-line stanzas used in nearly a quarter of the pageants in the cycle, is based on Genesis 22, which tells the story of the sacrifice of Isaac, with some details from previous chapters. However, it also is influenced by the Middle English Paraphrase of the Old Testament.1 The story was regarded as a prefiguring of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God.2 In demonstrating the typological relationship, the woodcut in the Biblia Pauperum shows Abraham poised to sacrifice his son immediately to the left of a depiction of Christ on the cross. In the York pageant the point is underlined by the fact that Isaac is not a young child but of the age of Jesus at the time of his ministry and Crucifixion (line 82: “Thyrty yere and more sumdele”). In a city with a high mortality rate (church records show that over the years the pageants were played, deaths exceeded births, with a precipitous decline in population that could not be stemmed by immigration), the loss of a son would have been a potential calamity. The civic predicament was such that here especially the play would have been expected to be particularly compelling — indeed, narrating a terrifying story that, as Søren Kierkegaard would demonstrate in Fear and Trembling, pitted the ethical against the higher demands of loyalty to God. The play presents a very human and compelling story, made all the more so in this telling. But the outcome is happy, for Abraham is also the patriarch from whom, through Isaac, both Judaism and Christianity would spring, as indicated in the final speech of the angel that reinforces God’s earlier promise. In the York lectionary, the story of Abraham appears in responsories in the days leading up to Lent.

13–20 God has told the patriarch Abraham that his progeny will be like the sands of the sea, and in Genesis 17 has made a covenant with him that includes the rite of circumcision in order to satisfy “the lawe.”

14 telde under a tree. Compare Middle English Metrical Paraphrase: “Abraham was tyllyd under A tre” (ed. Kalén and Ohlander, line 554).

15–16 my seede shulde be multyplyed / Lyke to the gravell of the see. Compare Middle English Metrical Paraphrase: “Ose gravell in the se is multyplyd, / So sall I multiplye thi sede” (ed. Kalén and Ohlander, lines 476–77).

29–40 Because she was barren, Sarah gave her handmaid Agar to Abraham as a second wife, and with her he had a son Ishmael, who is only said in the pageant to be handsome. See Genesis 16.

65 ANGELUS. In the pageant God communicates with Abraham through the angel, his messenger, rather than directly, as in Genesis.

71 lande of Vyssyon. The “land of vision” will be the place chosen by God where, upon a mountain, the sacrifice, by burning, is to take place (Genesis 22:2). The three-day journey is biblical, as are the servants (line 94) who accompanied Abraham and Isaac.

151 My sone, this wode behoves thee bere. In iconography, as for example in the Biblia Pauperum, Isaac carries the bundle of wood for the sacrifice. Sometimes the wood is bundled into the shape of a cross to underline the typological connection with Christ carrying the cross to the place of his execution.

161–62 Isaac becomes increasingly concerned about the lack of a sacrificial animal, especially since clearly Abraham is becoming more and more agitated. At last, at line 188, Abraham can no longer hold back the truth that he is about to sacrifice his own son, and he will do it at God’s command.

194–96 Isaac is terrified at the thought of being dismembered and burned, but he nevertheless is willing to allow himself to be sacrificed — just as Jesus, suffering the terror of his Agony in the Garden, will give himself up to his Father’s will, even death on the cross. By line 270, Isaac will be deeply fearful and will report that his “flesshe waxis faynte.”

212 My force youre forward to withstande. As noted above in the headnote to this pageant, at line 82 Isaac is described not as a child but as “sumdele” more than thirty years of age. While differing opinions concerning his age were put forward in the Middle Ages, the reason for depicting Isaac thus is that he “was fygur of Crystys passyon long er he wer borne” (Mirk, Festial, p. 78). See Wells, “Age of Isaac”; Woolf, “Effect of Typology,” p. 811; and C. Davidson, From Creation to Doom, pp. 52–54. Isaac’s “force” or strength is thus plausibly much greater than his aged father’s.

213 beste that ye me bynde. In the pageant it is Isaac who suggests that he should be bound. Later, he will ask that a kerchief be placed over his eyes as well (line 288).

229 Nowe kysse me hartely. The son is asked to show normal reverence for a parent with a kiss, as would be expected of offspring even into adulthood. Isaac later will ask his father for forgiveness for any trespasses he may have done in speech, deeds, “or any waye” (lines 255–58).

271 take youre swerde. Abraham’s sword is a standard item in iconography, usually shown lifted by him to strike his son on the altar. Yet there is further delay, until at last it must be raised to strike at lines 301–03, when the angel calls to him and orders him to desist. In most examples in the visual arts (e.g., the Biblia Pauperum, p. 96), the angel grasps his arm to prevent the sword from striking. In glass, possibly with connections to the York school of glass painting, in the Priory Church at Great Malvern, the angel appears only to be admonishing the patriarch who holds the uplifted sword, but here Abraham has his left hand on the head of Isaac, who is blindfolded and kneeling as in prayer (Rushforth, Medieval Christian Imagery, pp. 170–71, fig. 80).

304 Take here a schepe. The substitute for the son Isaac, in Christian theology mirroring the Son of God, the Lamb of God who will be a substitute for all humankind. In the pageant, the actual sacrifice of the sheep, surely not a live animal but rather a representation that Abraham and his son could pretend to burn, must have been very perfunctory, for at lines 329–32 the father and son are already prepared to return home.

365 Rabek. For the more complex story of Isaac’s love for and courtship of Rebecca, see Genesis 25.

Play 10, ABRAHAM AND ISAAC: TEXTUAL NOTES

ABBREVIATIONS: Bevington: David Bevington, ed., Medieval Drama (1975); Köbling: E. Köbling, “Beiträge zur Erklärung und Textkritik der York Plays”; LTS: Lucy Toulmin Smith, ed., The York Plays (1885); RB: Richard Beadle, ed., The York Plays (1972) (incorporating numerous emendations from other sources); RB²: Richard Beadle, “Corrections to The York Plays,” in Gerald Byron Kinneavy, A Concordance to the York Plays (1986), pp. xxxi–xxxii; s.d.: stage direction; Sykes: A. C. Cawley, ed., “The Sykes MS of the York Scriveners’ Play”; Towneley: Martin Stevens and A. C. Cawley, eds., The Towneley Plays.

The base text for this edition is London, British Library, MS. Add. 35290, called the “Register” in the York civic records and here identified by the abbreviation Reg. Some variations in lineation from the manuscript are not noted here; see RB and Beadle and Meredith’s The York Play: A Facsimile. In most cases the line numbering in the present text is consistent with RB. Lineation of alliterative verse throughout is based on Reg, with line numbering adjusted accordingly to account for half lines. Scribes are identified as follows: Scribe A; Scribe B: main scribe; JC: John Clerke; LH: later scribal hand (unidentified).

15 schulde be. RB: shulde be; Reg, LTS: schulde.
multyplyed. Reg: Final letter added by LH.

25 Abram. So LTS, RB; Reg: Abraham.

70 over. So LTS; RB: our.

90 Reg: following that, I interlined by LH.

95 asse. So RB; Reg, LTS: Assee.

108 send. Reg: emended by LH, originally sand.
agayne. Reg: added by Scribe B.

145 Reg: added in right margin by LH: Abram.

165 Reg: in right margin, probably by JC, apparently in error: father wold God / I shuld be slayne (deleted).

235–38 Reg: at right, by LH: hic; also illegible text, erased.

268 Reg: in right margin, JC has added: Nowe have I chose / whether I had lever etc. Also: My nowne swete son / to slo or greve my / God for ever.

271 Reg: to right, hic caret added by LH.

272 Methynke. So RB; LTS: Me thynke; Reg: Ye thynke.

281–82 Reg: by LH at right: Hic caret.

297 Reg: added by LH in right margin: hic.

327 he. Reg: interlined, by LH, in red.

362 lawez. Reg: corrected by LH.

369 ISAAC. Reg: repeated in right margin, by LH.

Play 10, ABRAHAM AND ISAAC: EXPLANATORY NOTE FOOTNOTES

Footnote 1 See Middle-English Metrical Paraphrase of the Old Testament, ed. Kalén and Ohlander, and Beadle, “Origins of Abraham’s Preamble.”

Footnote 2 See Daniélou, From Shadows to Reality, pp. 115–30; Mirk, Festial, pp. 76–78; and the surveys in Woolf, “Effect of Typology,” and C. Davidson, History, Religion, and Violence, pp. 124–48, esp. 126–31.